Psychology

For this pur pose I Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 1:01:42 +0000
As a result of this investigation an unqualified conviction of the futility of subjective methods of inquiry was firmly stamped upon my mind. It became clear that the only satisfactory solution of the problem lay in an experi mental investigation by strictly objective methods. For this pur pose I started to record all the external stimuli falling on the animal at the time its reflex reaction was manifested (in this particular case the secretion of saliva) , at the same time recording all changes in the reaction of the animal.

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At first only a few Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 0:46:43 +0000
This was the beginning of these investigations, which have gone on now for twenty-five years years in which numerous fellow-workers on whom I now look hack with tender affection have united with mine in this work their hearts and hands. We have of course passed through many stages, and only gradually has the subject been opened up and the difficulties overcome. At first only a few scattered facts were available, but to-day sufficient ma terial has been gathered together to warrant an attempt to present it in a more or less systematized form.

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Work on somewhat similar lines Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 0:31:21 +0000
At the present time I am in a position to present you with a physiological interpretation of the activities of the cerebral hemispheres which is, at any rate, more in keeping with the structural and functional complexity of this organ than is the collection of fragmentary, though very impor tant, facts which up to the present have represented all the knowl edge of this subject. Work on the lines of purely objective investigation into the highest nervous activities has been con ducted in the main in the laboratories under my control, and over a hundred collaborators have taken part. Work on somewhat similar lines to ours has been done by the American psychologists.

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Therefore with the exception Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 0:15:13 +0000
Up to the present, however, there has been the one essential point of difference between the American School and ourselves. Being psychologists, their mode of experimentation, in spite of the fact that they are studying these activities on their external aspect, is mostly psychological at any rate so far as the arrangement of problems and their analysis and the formulation of results are concerned. Therefore with the exception of a small group of "behaviourists" their work cannot be regarded as purely physi ological in character.

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I shall now turn Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 0:03:49 +0000
We, having started from physiology, continue to adhere strictly to the physiological point of view, investigating and systematizing the whole subject by physiological methods alone. As regards other physiological laboratories a few only have directed their attention to this subject, and that recently; nor have their investigations extended beyond the limits of a pre liminary inquiry. I shall now turn to the description of our material, first giving as a preliminary an account of the general conception of the reflex, of specific physiological reflexes, and of the so-called "in stincts Our starting point has been Descartes idea of the nervous reflex.

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Thus a stimulus appears Post Date: Sun, 31 Aug 2008 23:53:34 +0000
This is a genuine scientific conception, since it implies necessity. It may be summed up as follows: An external or internal stimulus falls on some one or other nervous receptor and gives rise to a nervous impulse; this nervous impulse is transmitted along nerve fibres to the central nervous system, and here, on account of existing nervous connections, it gives rise to a fresh impulse which passes along outgoing nerve fibres to the active organ, where it excites a special activity of the cellular structures. Thus a stimulus appears to be connected of necessity with a defi nite response, as cause with effect.

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To give a biological example: Post Date: Sun, 31 Aug 2008 23:40:39 +0000
It seems obvious that the whole activity of the organism should conform to definite laws. If the animal were not in exact correspondence with its environment it would, sooner or later, cease to exist. To give a biological example: if, instead of being attracted to food, the animal were repelled by it, or if instead of running from fire the animal threw itself into the fire, then it would quickly perish.

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Every material system can exist Post Date: Sun, 31 Aug 2008 23:23:16 +0000
The animal must respond to changes in the environment in such a manner that its responsive activity is directed towards the preservation of its existence. This conclusion holds also if we consider the living organism in terms of physical and chemical science. Every material system can exist as an entity only so long as its internal forces, attraction, cohesion, etc.

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Being a definite circumscribed material Post Date: Sun, 31 Aug 2008 23:12:05 +0000
, balance the external forces acting upon it. This is true for an ordinary stone just as much as for the most complex chemical substances; and its truth should be recognized also for the animal organism. Being a definite circumscribed material system, it can only continue to exist so long as it is in continuous equilibrium with the forces external to it: so soon as this equilibrium is seri ously disturbed the organism will cease to exist as the entity it was.

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Reflexes, like the driving-belts Post Date: Sun, 31 Aug 2008 22:56:39 +0000
Reflexes are the elemental units in the mechanism of perpetual equilibration. Physiologists have studied and are studying at the present time these numerous machine-like, inevitable reactions of the organism reflexes existing from the very birth of the animal, and due therefore to the inherent organization of the nervous system. Reflexes, like the driving-belts of machines of human de sign, may be of two kinds positive and negative, excitatory and inhibitory.

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