Psychology

If this be the case Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 3:37:58 +0000
Just before the War (1913), on the occasion of a discussion in Ger many as to the advisability of making separate Chairs of Philosophy and Psychology, Wundt opposed the separation, one of his argu ments being the impossibility of fixing a common examination schedule in psychology, since every professor had his own special ideas as to what psychology really was. Such testimony seems t9 show clearly that psychology cannot yet claim the status of an exact science. If this be the case there is no need for the physiologist to have recourse to psychology.

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Three hundred years ago Des Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 3:23:21 +0000
It would be more natural that ex perimental investigation of the physiological activities of the hemispheres should lay a solid foundation for a future true science of psychology; such a course is more likely to lead to the advance ment of this branch of natural science. The physiologist must thus take his own path, where a trail has already been blazed for him. Three hundred years ago Des cartes evolved the idea of the reflex.

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In the eighteenth, nineteenth Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 3:06:32 +0000
Starting from the assumption that animals behaved simply as machines, he regarded every activity of the organism as a necessary reaction to some external stimulus, the connection between the stimulus and the response being made through a definite nervous path: and this connection, he stated, was the fundamental purpose of the nervous structures in the animal body. This was the basis on which the study of the nervous system was firmly established. In the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries the conception of the reflex was used to the full by physiologists.

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It may be hoped Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 2:53:08 +0000
Working at first only on the lower parts of the central nervous system, they came gradually to study more highly developed parts, until quite recently Magnus, 6 continuing the classical investigations of Sherrington 7 upon the spinal reflexes, has succeeded in demonstrating the reflex nature of all the elemen tary motor activities of the animal organism. Descartes conception of the reflex was constantly and fruitfully applied in these studies, but its application has stopped short of the cerebral cortex. It may be hoped that some of the more complex activities of the body, which are made up by a grouping together of the elementary locomotor activities, and which enter into the states referred to in psychological phraseology as "playfulness 1 "fear 1 "anger and so forth, will soon be demonstrated as reflex activities of the subcortical parts of the brain.

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Thoughts he regarded as reflexes Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 2:35:18 +0000
A bold attempt to apply the idea of the reflex to the activities of the hemispheres was made by the Russian physiologist, I M Sechenov, on the basis of the knowl edge available in his day of the physiology of the central nervous system. In a pamphlet entitled "Reflexes of the Brain published in Russian in 1863, he attempted to represent the activities of the cerebral hemispheres as reflex that is to say, as determined. Thoughts he regarded as reflexes in which the effector path was inhibited, while great outbursts of passion he regarded as ex aggerated reflexes with a wide irradiation of excitation.

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All this, however, was mere Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 2:23:54 +0000
A similar attempt was made more recently by Ch Richet, 8 who introduced the conception of the psychic reflex, in which the response follow ing on a given stimulus is supposed to be determined by the asso ciation of this stimulus with the traces left in the hemispheres by past stimuli. And generally speaking, recent physiology shows a tendency to regard the highest activities of the hemispheres as an association of the new excitations at any given time with traces left by old ones (associative memory, training, education by ex perience). All this, however, was mere conjecture.

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In dealing with the lower Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 2:10:00 +0000
The time was ripe for a transition to the experimental analysis of the subject an analysis which must be as objective as the analysis in any other branch of natural science. An impetus was given to this transition by the rapidly developing science of comparative physiology, which itself sprang up as a direct result of the Theory of Evolu tion. In dealing with the lower members of the animal kingdom physiologists were, of necessity, compelled to reject anthropo morphic preconceptions, and to direct all their effort towards the elucidation of the connections between the external stimulus and the resulting response, whether locomotor or other reaction.

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We may fairly regard Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 1:52:40 +0000
This led to the development of Loeb s doctrine of Animal Tropisms; 9 to the introduction of a new objective terminology to describe animal reactions [Beer, Bethe and Uexkull 10 ]; and finally, it led to the investigation by zoologists, using purely objective methods, of the behaviour of the lower members of the animal kingdom in response to external stimuli as for example in the classical re searches of Jennings. 11 Under the influence of these new tendencies in biology, which appealed to the practical bent of the American mind, the American School of Psychologists already interested in the com parative study of psychology evinced a disposition to subject the highest nervous activities of animals to experimental analysis under various specially devised conditions. We may fairly regard the treatise by Thorndyke, The Animal Intelligence (1898) , 12 as the starting point for systematic investigations of this kind.

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Tables and charts were made Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 1:35:01 +0000
In these investigations the animal was kept in a box, and food was placed outside the box so that it was visible to the animal. In order to get the food the animal had to open a door, which was fastened by various suitable contrivances in the different experi ments. Tables and charts were made showing how quickly and in what manner the animal solved the problems set it.

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At about the same time Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 1:16:01 +0000
The whole process was understood as being the formation of an association between the visual and tactile stimuli on the one hand and the locomotor apparatus on the other. This method, with its modifica tions, was subsequently applied by numerous authors to the study of questions relating to the associative ability of various animals. At about the same time as Thorndyke was engaged on this work, I myself (being then quite ignorant of his researches) was also led to the objective study of the hemispheres, by the following circumstance: In the course of a detailed investigation into the activities of the digestive glands I had to inquire into the so-called psychic secretion of some of the glands, a task which I attempted in conjunction with a collaborator.

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