Psychology

We know that this complex Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 6:03:49 +0000
Consider the dog, which has been for so many countless ages the servant of man. Think how he may be trained to perform various duties, watching, hunting, etc. We know that this complex behaviour of the animal, undoubtedly in volving the highest nervous activity, is mainly associated with the cerebral hemispheres.

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In man also the highest Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 5:51:26 +0000
If we remove the hemispheres in the dog [Goltz 1 and others 2 ], the animal becomes not only incapable of performing these duties but also incapable even of looking after itself. It becomes in fact a helpless invalid, and cannot long sur vive unless it be carefully tended. In man also the highest nervous activity is dependent upon the structural and functional integrity of the cerebral hemispheres.

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In astounding contrast Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 5:40:20 +0000
As soon as these structures become damaged and their functions impaired in any way, so man also becomes an invalid. He can no longer proceed with his normal duties, but has to be kept out of the working world of his fellow men. In astounding contrast with the unbounded activity of the cerebral hemispheres stands the meagre content of present-day physiological knowledge concerning them.

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It was found by these Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 5:30:12 +0000
Up to the year 1870, in fact, there was no physiology of the hemispheres; they seemed to be out of reach of the physiologist. In that year the common physi ological methods of stimulation and extirpation were first applied to them [Fritsch and Hitzig 3 ]. It was found by these workers that stimulation of certain parts of the cortex of the hemispheres (mo tor cortex) regularly evoked contractions in definite groups of skeletal muscles: extirpation of these parts of the cortex led to disturbances in the normal functioning of the same groups of muscles.

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Extirpation of these areas leads Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 5:19:00 +0000
Shortly afterwards it was demonstrated [Ferrier, 4 H. Munk 5 ] that other areas of the cortex which do not evoke any motor activity in response to stimulation are also functionally differentiated. Extirpation of these areas leads to definite defects in the nervous activity associated with certain receptor organs, such as the retina of the eye, the organ of Corti, and the sensory nerve-endings in the skin.

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These investigations, however, did not Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 5:05:54 +0000
Searching investigations have been made, and still are being made, by numerous workers on this question of localization of function in the cortex. Our knowledge has been increased in precision and filled out in detail, especially as regards the motor area, and has even found useful application in medicine. These investigations, however, did not proceed funda mentally beyond the position established by Fritsch and Hitzig.

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These nervous activities have never Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 4:49:49 +0000
The important question of the physiological mechanism of the whole higher and complex behaviour of the animal which is as Goltz showed dependent upon the cerebral hemispheres, was not touched in any of these investigations and formed no part of the current physiological knowledge, When therefore we ask the questions: What do those facts which have up to the present been at the disposal of the physi ologist explain with regard to the behaviour of the higher animals? What general scheme of the highest nervous activity can they give? or what general rules governing this activity can they help us to formulate? the modern physiologist finds himself at a loss and can give no satisfactory reply The problem of the mechanism of this complex structure which is so rich in function has got hidden away in a corner, and this unlimited field, so fertile in possibilities for research, has never been adequately explored. The reason for this is quite simple and clear. These nervous activities have never been regarded from the same point of view as those of other organs, or even other parts of the central nervous system.

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On the one hand it Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 4:30:48 +0000
The activities of the hemispheres have been talked about as some kind of special psychical activity, whose working we feel and apprehend in ourselves, and by analogy suppose to exist in animals. This is an anomaly which has placed the physiologist in an extremely difficult position. On the one hand it would seem that the study of the activities of the cerebral hemispheres, as of the activities of any other part of the organism, should be within the compass of physiology, but on the other hand it happens to he should first of all study the methods of this science of psy chology, and only afterwards hope to study the physiological mechanism of the hemispheres? This involves a serious difficulty.

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In fact it is still Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 4:13:26 +0000
It is logical that in its analysis of the various activities of living matter physiology should base itself on the more advanced and more exact sciences physics and chemistry. But if we attempt an approach from this science of psychology to the problem confront ing us we shall be building our superstructure on a science which has no claim to exactness as compared even with physiology. In fact it is still open to discussion whether psychology is a natural science, or whether it can be regarded as a science at all.

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Another striking illustration is provided Post Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2008 3:56:04 +0000
It is not possible here for me to enter deeply into this question, but I will stay to give one fact which strikes me very forcibly, viz that even the advocates of psychology do not look upon their science as being in any sense exact. The eminent American psychologist, William James, has in recent years re ferred to psychology not as a science but as a hope of science. Another striking illustration is provided by Wundt, the celebrated philosopher and psychologist, founder of the so-called experimental method in psychology and himself formerly a physiologist.

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